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Environmental identity is defined as an aspect of one’s self-concept in relation to the natural world, as defined by Clayton (2003):

Environmental identity is one part of the way in which people form their self-concept: a sense of connection to some part of the nonhuman natural environment, based on history, emotional attachment and/or similarity, that affects the way in which we perceive and act toward the world; a belief that the environment is important to us and an important part of who we are. (45–46)

Environmental identity is particularly important in that it considers how one’s sense of self will direct one’s actions and behaviors towards the natural environment (Clayton & Optow, 2003). There is a general understanding that a strong environmental identity will lead to environmental advocacy. However, there is little theory describing how these environmental identities develop and emerge. Furthermore, environmental identity has largely been studied in adult populations, whereas studies with children and young children in particular, have been limited. The EID Model and this research project aim to strengthen our understandings of environmental identity development in young children over time and across cultures.

A Psychosocial Theory of Identity and Emotional Development

Psychosocial theory of identity and emotions. A psychosocial understanding of identity and emotional development recognizes that emotions and subsequently behavior are individualized and internalized and form the basis of one’s identity (Erikson, 1980). The EID Model is based off of Erik Erikson’s theory and model of psychosocial development (1950; 1972; 1980). The four stages of his model include: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority.

The EID model recontextualizes Erikson’s four stages of identity development as four progressions of environmental identity development. The child navigates both inner and outer tensions throughout these progressions. Their experiences are framed by familial, cultural and societal values, but their progress will be determined by personal feelings and actions.

It is important to note that even children within the same social, cultural or geographical contexts will not emotionally respond to nature in the same way. The internal attributes of a child as well as these outer influences all contribute to the way in which a child emotionally and behaviorally responds to their environment. In other words, every child is unique. Furthermore, children's emotional and behavioral responses are not static, but can change over time. Their response to certain environmental stimuli may elicit different reactions as a child develops their relationship with place. Our longitudinal environmental identity research project examines how an individual’s emotional response to environmental stimuli will change through sociocultural experiences and over time.

Psychosocial theory of identity and emotions. A psychosocial understanding of identity and emotional development recognizes that emotions and subsequently behavior are individualized and internalized and form the basis of one’s identity (Erikson, 1980). The EID Model is based off of Erik Erikson’s theory and model of psychosocial development (1950; 1972; 1980). The four stages of his model include: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority.

The EID model recontextualizes Erikson’s four stages of identity development as four progressions of environmental identity development. The child navigates both inner and outer tensions throughout these progressions. Their experiences are framed by familial, cultural and societal values, but their progress will be determined by personal feelings and actions.

It is important to note that even children within the same social, cultural or geographical contexts will not emotionally respond to nature in the same way. The internal attributes of a child as well as these outer influences all contribute to the way in which a child emotionally and behaviorally responds to their environment. In other words, every child is unique. Furthermore, children's emotional and behavioral responses are not static, but can change over time. Their response to certain environmental stimuli may elicit different reactions as a child develops their relationship with place. Our longitudinal environmental identity research project examines how an individual’s emotional response to environmental stimuli will change through sociocultural experiences and over time.

The EID model is integrated with the Lucas (1979) environmental education model. An individual's learning experiences in/from, about, and for the environment influence and contextualize the progression of their EID.

Education in and from the environment emphasizes immersive play and learning in nature; through these activities, children begin to develop a sense of wonder and a relationship with the natural world (Chawla and Rivkin 2014). This type of education serves to promote a greater sense of trust and spatial autonomy in the natural world. Education about the environment focuses on building environmental knowledge, understandings and awareness of ecological processes. This type of education will also ideally take place outside, but learning may also occur in the classroom. Education for the environment is promotes conservation behaviors and actions for sustainability (Davis 2010; Palmer and Neal 1994). These different education strategies situated at different progressions on the EID model, but educators are encouraged to utilize the strategies both before and after the suggested progression.

These learning experiences may occur with adults (i.e. caregivers and educators) and peers (i.e. siblings and friends) as well as through independent and social contexts. See to learn more about child-initiated EID activities in the natural world.

It is essential to consider cultural contexts when applying the EID model. A child's environmental identity develops within the framework of familial, cultural and societal values. Different cultures view, perceive and interact with the environment in different ways, depending on their traditional relationship with the natural world.

For example, a person who has grown up in a city, primarily experiencing the natural world through recreational activities, will have a very different relationship with the environment than an Indigenous person living in a rural village, who regularly hunts and gathers their food from the local land. Both of these individuals may have strong environmental identities, but their identities will develop in unique ways.

It is important to recognize, respect and honor these diverse ways of understanding and interacting with the environment. For educators, this includes recognizing and incorporating diverse cultural ways of learning and teaching.

Relatively little is known about the emotional and behavioral processes that shape children’s early interactions with nature, and how sociocultural values and norms inform a child’s developing environmental identity. The EID model presents a framework for understanding these processes, and it may be used as a tool in the creation of education strategies that support and encourage a positive environmental identity.

Different theoretical frameworks can facilitate the creation of new pedagogies and educational approaches that center the child and incorporate diverse ways of knowing. The EID model is one such framework; the model integrates research-informed theories of child development, sociological perspectives of childhood and environmental education approaches around the concept of environmental identity. The framework merges a sociocultural overview with individual analyses to understand children’s individual growth within the context of their lived environments. This model may be used to inform and guide the creation of child-centered and multicultural education activities within the contexts of place-based education and environmental education.

Trust in Nature vs. Mistrust in Nature

In the first progression, Trust in Nature vs. Mistrust in Nature, feelings of trust and security are considered foundational to a child’s environmental identity development. Mistrust in Nature emerges during fearful and anxious encounters with nature that are not adequately negotiated.

Into the Woods

• Description: Daniel walks on a snowy trail through the woods. He's several feet ahead of his teacher and classmates, and he occasionally turns to look at them. As he walks, he chirps like a bird, howls like a wolf, and roars like a bear. After one deep growl, he pauses to look around at the trees. He nervously says, "Um... are you sure this is okay forest?" He waits for his nearest classmate to pass him. Daniel then sees his teacher approaching, and he resumes walking and chirping.

• Explanation: Daniel is currently navigating the first stage of EID. Initially, he appears confident on the trail. However, he soon expresses uncertainty and fear in his surroundings. His chirping and howling may be an expression of anxiety or a self-regulatory technique. Fortunately, the presence of his classmates and teacher allow him to regain confidence and continue walking on the trail.

  If a sense of Mistrust in Nature grows, environmental discomfort may overwhelm the desire to explore, leading to Environmental Shame. However, with the support of his teacher, peers and other caretakers, Daniel can develop a stronger sense of Trust in Nature that allows him to grow in his relationship with the natural world.

Danger on the Ice

• Description: It's early spring, and Andrew is near the bank of a frozen lake with his teacher, classmates and other parents. His teacher tells the children to stay off the lake because the warming weather may have thinned the ice. Andrew decides to walk onto the ice, only returning when his teacher calls him back. A few days later, Andrew's class is out by the lake again. The teacher has just shared a story about falling through the ice, explaining to the children why they should stay off the ice. Andrew goes to the bank and rolls down the snowy incline onto the frozen lake surface. Once again, his teacher must call him back to solid ground.
• Explanation: Andrew is not uncomfortable in nature, but he has not formed an appropriate foundation of Trust in Nature. These instances are complicated by a language barrier between Andrew and his teacher. Trust in Nature allows children to feel comfortable navigating the natural world aware of and in response to potential dangers. It is important for adults to model safe behaviors so that children can develop a healthy sense of trust.

In the second progression, Spatial Autonomy vs. Environmental Shame, a strong sense of trust in nature propels a child to venture out, independently or with others, to explore and claim their own places. The development of a sense of place allows a child to gain a sense of autonomy with their environment (Green, 2011; 2015). Contrary to Spatial Autonomy are feelings of Environmental Shame, which causes a child to withdraw and feel uncomfortable during nature experiences.

Navigating Tundra

• Description: Jackson is at the top of a rocky slope leading down into the tundra. His classmates walk around and past him, seemingly without difficulty, as they head to the tundra. Jackson takes a few uncertain steps before he stops and tells everyone else to do the same. He feels scared, and he doesn't know how to continue. A teacher comes up and gently encourages Jackson to keep walking. Jackson begins taking steps and makes his way to the tundra.
• Explanation: Jackson is new to this environment, having recently moved to the area. He has not yet formed a foundation of Trust in Nature and his abilities to traverse it. His Mistrust in Nature leads to a moment of Environmental Shame. He tries to withdraw from the activity. Luckily, a teacher notices his discomfort and fear, and she is able to give him the support and encouragement he needs to traverse the rocks. Continued support will enable Jackson to develop a deeper sense of security in the environment, which will empower him to develop his sense of Spatial Autonomy.

Running on the Beach

• Description: As soon as Grace steps on the beach, she begins running and laughing. She begins to climb up a steep sandy hill with her friends. The climb becomes challenging, and she grunts as she uses her hands to pull herself up the hill. Nevertheless, she continues to giggle throughout the climb, bursting into laughter at the top. She steps onto a driftwood log and fearlessly jumps down, yelling "Cannonball!" She notices a strange item in the sand, a small plastic cup, and she begins to experiment with its use in the sandy environment.
• Explanation: Grace is demonstrating a strong sense of Spatial Autonomy. She feels comfortable in the environment, and she readily traverses the environment in various ways, from running through the sand, to climbing up the hill, to jumping off a log. She is happy to explore this environment surrounded by friends. Her strong Spatial Autonomy and Trust in Nature allows her to readily develop Environmental Competency.

In the third progression, Environmental Competency vs. Environmental Disdain, children gain confidence in their interactions with nature by acquiring skills and ecological understandings of place (Green, 2013). Feelings of guilt, or a lack of confidence and ecological understanding leads children to demonstrate Environmental Disdain, or a disregard for nature.

In the second progression, Spatial Autonomy vs. Environmental Shame, a strong sense of trust in nature propels a child to venture out, independently or with others, to explore and claim their own places. The development of a sense of place allows a child to gain a sense of autonomy with their environment (Green, 2011; 2015). Contrary to Spatial Autonomy are feelings of Environmental Shame, which causes a child to withdraw and feel uncomfortable during nature experiences.

Navigating Tundra

• Description: Jennifer is determined to learn how to climb a tree. She walks around the stand of trees, looking for "an easy tree." She notices the tree-climbing skills of her classmates and uses them as motivation for her own learning. She self-talks throughout, encouraging and reassuring herself that, with practice, she will learn how to climb a tree.
• Explanation: Jennifer struggles with climbing trees compared to some of her classmates, but she feels determined and empowered to continue practicing. Her self-talk enables her to express and encourage herself. If she were to become overwhelmed to the point of discouragement, she might lose interest or even begin to dislike climbing trees, leading to Environmental Disdain. However, with continued practice and the support of her caretakers, Jennifer will overcome these obstacles and develop competent tree-climbing skills. Here she comes!

Running on the Beach

• Description: Owen has his fishing pole ready with bait, but he is unsure how to cast the line. He goes up to an adult and asks for help. She demonstrates how to cast the line, making sure he helps her through the process. Afterwards, Owen attempts to cast the line by himself, but he can't seem to get it right. Finally, he makes a successful cast and he joyfully yells, "I did it!"

• Explanation: Owen is developing the Environmental Competency of fishing. Although he struggles initially, with an adult's assistance, he overcomes his difficulties and begins to successfully cast his line. The happiness associated with Owen's success will propel him to further develop his skills and competencies in fishing. This positive experience, along with his growing skills, is preparing Owen for the next progression in EID: environmental action.

In the fourth progression, Environmental Action vs. Environmental Harm, through successful progression in the previous stages, children develop moral values and the know-how to engage in Environmental Action. Failure to progress through one or more stages may result in intentional or unintentional Environmental Harm.

Killing the Spider

• Description: Three girls stand around a wooden trail marker, Amanda, Brittany and Jennifer. They notice a small spider at the base of the marker. The girls squeal, and Amanda and Brittany say they are afraid of spiders. Brittany decides to kill the spider. Amanda and Jennifer immediately express sympathy for the "poor buggy." Brittany, thinking that Amanda had been fearful of the spider, asks her if she liked it when she killed it. Amanda does not respond.
• Explanation: These three girls are negotiating the tension between Environmental Action and Environmental Harm. The girls exhibit some Mistrust in Nature in their fear of the spider, but they also express sympathy for it after it dies. Many different factors may have influenced the events and actions in this video, from past experiences to the current social dynamics. Educators should revisit the earlier stages of the EID model to ensure these children have a solid foundation of Trust in Nature. Furthermore, by learning more about spiders and their role in the ecosystem, the girls can develop their Environmental Competency. This knowledge would allow them to understand that this spider was simply existing in its home and posed no real threat.

Protecting the Flowers

• Description: Steven notices some bright red plants on the tundra floor. He gazes upon them, saying they are "so pretty." He looks up and sees that no one else is paying attention to the red flowers. He realizes others are unintentionally stepping on the flowers. He yells at them to stop, but no one responds. He finally gets the attention of one peer, Owen, who listens and looks down at the flowers.
• Explanation: Steven's sense of trust and comfort in the environment allows him to easily build a connection with the natural world. He immediately feels an affinity for the red flowers and a strong desire to protect them. Although his Environmental Action may be of a relatively small scale, he is indeed acting to protect the environment with the skills available to him. Educators can encourage Steven's care and concern for nature and build upon it as he develops his competencies and capacity for Environmental Action.

Clayton, S. (2003). Environmental identity: A conceptual and an operational definition. In S. Clayton and S. Opotow (Eds.), Identity and the Natural Environment (pp. 45–65). MIT Press.

Clayton, S., and S. Opotow. (2003). Identity and the Natural Environment. MIT Press.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and Society. 1st ed. New York: Norton and Company.

Erikson, E. H. (1972). Eight Stages of Man. In C. S. Lavatelli and F. Stendler (Eds.), Readings in Child Behavior and Child Development (pp. 19–30). Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Erikson, E. H. (1980). Identity and the Life Cycle. Norton and Company.

Lucas, A. M. (1979). Environment and Environmental Education: Conceptual Issues and Curriculum Implications. Australia International Press and Publications.

Sroufe, L. A. (1991). Psychopathology as an outcome of development. Development and Psychopathology, 9(2), 251–268.